Energy systems engineering: evaluation and implementation.

1 Introduction
1-1 Overview
1-2 Introduction
1-2-1 Historic Growth in Energy Supply
1-3 Relationship between Energy, Population, and Wealth
1-3-1 Correlation between Energy Use and Wealth
1-3-2 Human Development Index: An Alternative Means of Evaluating Prosperity
1-4 Pressures Facing World due to Energy Consumption
1-4-1 Industrial versus Emerging Countries
1-4-2 Pressure on CO2 Emissions
1-4-3 Observations about Energy Use and CO2 Emissions Trends
1-4-4 Discussion: Contrasting Mainstream and Deep Ecologic Perspectives on Energy Requirements
1-5 Energy Issues and the Contents of This Book
1-5-1 Motivations, Techniques, and Applications
1-5-2 Initial Comparison of Three Underlying Primary Energy Sources
1-6 Units of Measure Used in Energy Systems
1-6-1 Metric (SI) Units
1-6-2 U.S. Standard Customary Units
1-6-3 Units Related to Oil Production and Consumption
1-7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
2 Systems and Policy Tools
2-1 Overview
2-2 Introduction
2-2-1 Conserving Existing Energy Resources versus Shifting to Alternative Resources
2-2-2 The Concept of Sustainable Development
2-3 Fundamentals of the Systems Approach
2-3-1 Initial Definitions
2-3-2 Steps in the Application of the Systems Approach
2-3-3 Stories, Scenarios, and Models
2-3-4 Systems Approach Applied to the Scope of This Book: Energy/Climate Challenges Compared to Other Challenges
2-4 Other Systems Tools Applied to Energy
2-4-1 Systems Dynamics Models: Exponential Growth, Saturation, and Causal Loops
2-5 Other Tools for Energy Systems
2-5-1 Kaya Equation: Factors That Contribute to Overall CO2 Emissions
2-5-2 Life-Cycle Analysis and Energy Return on Investment
2-5-3 Multi-Criteria Analysis of Energy Systems Decisions
2-5-4 Choosing among Alternative Solutions Using Optimization
2-5-5 Understanding Contributing Factors to Time-Series Energy Trends Using Divisia Analysis
2-5-6 Incorporating Uncertainty into Analysis Using Probabilistic Approaches and Monte Carlo Simulation
2-6 Energy Policy as a Catalyst for the Pursuit of Sustainability
2-7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
3 Engineering Economic Tools
3-1 Overview
3-2 Introduction
3-2-1 The Time Value of Money
3-3 Economic Analysis of Energy Projects and Systems
3-3-1 Definition of Terms
3-3-2 Evaluation without Discounting
3-3-3 Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
3-3-4 Maximum Payback Period Method
3-3-5 Levelized Cost of Energy
3-4 Direct versus External Costs and Benefits
3-5 Intervention in Energy Investments to Achieve Social Aims
3-5-1 Methods of Intervention in Energy Technology Investments
3-5-2 Critiques of Intervention in Energy Investments
3-6 NPV Case Study Example
3-7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
4 Climate Change and Climate Modeling
4-1 Overview
4-2 Introduction
4-2-1 Relationship between the Greenhouse Effect and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
4-2-2 Carbon Cycle and Solar Radiation
4-2-3 Quantitative Imbalance in CO2 Flows into and out of the Atmosphere
4-2-4 Consensus on the Human Link to Climate Change: Taking the Next Steps
4-2-5 Early Indications of Change and Remaining Areas of Uncertainty
4-3 Modeling Climate and Climate Change
4-3-1 Relationship between Wavelength, Energy Flux, and Absorption
4-3-2 A Model of the Earth-Atmosphere System
4-3-3 General Circulation Models of Global Climate
4-4 Climate in the Future
4-4-1 Positive and Negative Feedback from Climate Change
4-4-2 Scenarios for Future Rates of CO2 Emissions, CO2 Stabilization Values, and Average Global Temperature
4-4-3 Recent Efforts to Counteract Climate Change: The Kyoto Protocol (1997–2012)
4-4-4 Assessing the Effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol and Description of Post-Kyoto Efforts
4-5 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
5 Fossil Fuel Resources
5-1 Overview
5-2 Introduction
5-2-1 Characteristics of Fossil Fuels
5-2-2 Current Rates of Consumption and Total Resource Availability
5-2-3 CO2 Emissions Comparison and a “Decarbonization” Strategy
5-3 Decline of Conventional Fossil Fuels and a Possible Transition to Nonconventional Alternatives
5-3-1 Hubbert Curve Applied to Resource Lifetime
5-3-2 Potential Role for Nonconventional Fossil Resources as Substitutes for Oil and Gas
5-3-3 Example of U.S. and World Nonconventional Oil Development
5-3-4 Discussion: Potential Ecological and Social Impacts of Evolving Fossil Fuel Extraction
5-3-5 Conclusion: The Past and Future of Fossil Fuels
5-4 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
6 Stationary Combustion Systems
6-1 Overview
6-2 Introduction
6-2-1 A Systems Approach to Combustion Technology
6-3 Fundamentals of Combustion Cycle Calculation
6-3-1 Brief Review of Thermodynamics
6-3-2 Rankine Vapor Cycle
6-3-3 Brayton Gas Cycle
6-4 Advanced Combustion Cycles for Maximum Efficiency
6-4-1 Supercritical Cycle
6-4-2 Combined Cycle
6-4-3 Cogeneration and Combined Heat and Power
6-5 Economic Analysis of Stationary Combustion Systems
6-5-1 Calculation of Levelized Cost of Electricity Production
6-5-2 Case Study of Small-Scale Cogeneration Systems
6-5-3 Case Study of Combined Cycle Cogeneration Systems
6-5-4 Integrating Different Electricity Generation Sources into the Grid
6-6 Incorporating Environmental Considerations into Combustion Project Cost Analysis
6-7 Reducing CO2 by Combusting Nonfossil Fuels or Capturing Emissions
6-7-1 Waste-to-Energy Conversion Systems
6-7-2 Electricity Generation from Biomass Combustion
6-7-3 Waste Water Energy Recovery and Food Waste Conversion to Electricity
6-7-4 Zero-Carbon Systems for Combusting Fossil Fuels and Generating Electricity
6-8 Systems Issues in Combustion in the Future
6-9 Representative Levelized Cost Calculation for Electricity from Natural Gas
6-10 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
7 Carbon Sequestration
7-1 Overview
7-2 Introduction
7-3 Indirect Sequestration
7-3-1 The Photosynthesis Reaction: The Core Process of Indirect Sequestration
7-3-2 Indirect Sequestration in Practice
7-3-3 Future Prospects for Indirect Sequestration
7-4 Geological Storage of CO2
7-4-1 Removing CO2 from Waste Stream
7-4-2 Options for Direct Sequestration in Geologically Stable Reservoirs
7-4-3 Prospects for Geological Sequestration
7-5 Sequestration through Conversion of CO2 into Inert Materials
7-6 Direct Removal of CO2 from Atmosphere for Sequestration
7-7 Overall Comparison of Sequestration Options
7-8 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
8 Nuclear Energy Systems
8-1 Overview
8-2 Introduction
8-2-1 Brief History of Nuclear Energy
8-2-2 Current Status of Nuclear Energy
8-3 Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Resources
8-3-1 Reactions Associated with Nuclear Energy
8-3-2 Availability of Resources for Nuclear Energy
8-4 Reactor Designs: Mature Technologies and Emerging Alternatives
8-4-1 Established Reactor Designs
8-4-2 Alternative Fission Reactor Designs
8-5 Nuclear Fusion
8-6 Nuclear Energy and Society: Environmental, Political, and Security Issues
8-6-1 Contribution of Nuclear Energy to Reducing CO2 Emissions
8-6-2 Management of Radioactive Substances during Life Cycle of Nuclear Energy
8-6-3 Nuclear Energy and the Prevention of Proliferation
8-6-4 The Effect of Public Perception on Nuclear Energy
8-6-5 Future Prospects for Nuclear Energy
8-7 Representative Levelized Cost Calculation for Electricity from Nuclear Fission
8-8 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
9 The Solar Resource
9-1 Overview
9-1-1 Symbols Used in This Chapter
9-2 Introduction
9-2-1 Availability of Energy from the Sun and Geographic Availability
9-3 Definition of Solar Geometric Terms and Calculation of Sun’s Position by Time of Day
9-3-1 Relationship between Solar Position and Angle of Incidence on Solar Surface
9-3-2 Method for Approximating Daily Energy Reaching a Solar Device
9-4 Effect of Diffusion on Solar Performance
9-4-1 Direct, Diffuse, and Global Insolation
9-4-2 Climatic and Seasonal Effects
9-4-3 Effect of Surface Tilt on Insolation Diffusion
9-5 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
10 Solar Photovoltaic Technologies
10-1 Overview
10-1-1 Symbols Used in This Chapter
10-2 Introduction
10-2-1 Alternative Approaches to Manufacturing PV Panels
10-3 Fundamentals of PV Cell Performance
10-3-1 Losses in PV Cells and Gross Current Generated by Incoming Light
10-3-2 Net Current Generated as a Function of Device Parameters
10-3-3 Other Factors Affecting Performance
10-3-4 Calculation of Unit Cost of PV Panels
10-4 Design and Operation of Practical PV Systems
10-4-1 Available System Components for Different Types of Designs
10-4-2 Estimating Output from PV System: Basic Approach Using PV Watts
10-4-3 Estimating Output from PV System: Extended Approach
10-4-4 Year-to-Year Variability of PV System Output
10-4-5 Economics of PV Systems
10-5 Life-Cycle Energy and Environmental Considerations
10-6 Representative Levelized Cost Calculation for Electricity from Solar PV
10-7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
11 Active Solar Thermal Applications
11-1 Overview
11-2 Symbols Used in This Chapter
11-3 General Comments
11-4 Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
11-4-1 General Characteristics, Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
11-4-2 Solar Collectors with Liquid as the Transport Fluid
11-4-3 Solar Collectors with Air as the Transport Fluid
11-4-4 Unglazed Solar Collectors
11-4-5 Other Heat Transfer Fluids for Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
11-4-6 Selective Surfaces
11-4-7 Reverse-Return Piping
11-4-8 Hybrid PV/Thermal Systems
11-4-9 Evacuated-Tube Solar Collectors
11-4-10 Performance Case Study of an Evacuated Tube System
11-5 Concentrating Collectors
11-5-1 General Characteristics, Concentrating Solar Collectors
11-5-2 Parabolic Trough Concentrating Solar Collectors
11-5-3 Parabolic Dish Concentrating Solar Collectors
11-5-4 Power Tower Concentrating Solar Collectors
11-5-5 Solar Cookers
11-6 Heat Transfer in Flat-Plate Solar Collectors
11-6-1 Solar Collector Energy Balance
11-6-2 Testing and Rating Procedures for Flat-Plate, Glazed Solar Collectors
11-6-3 Heat Exchangers and Thermal Storages
11-6-4 f-Chart for System Analysis
11-6-5 f-Chart for System Design
11-6-6 Optimizing the Combination of Solar Collector Array and Heat Exchanger
11-6-7 Pebble Bed Thermal Storage for Air Collectors
11-7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
12 Passive Solar Thermal Applications
12-1 Overview
12-2 Symbols Used in This Chapter
12-3 General Comments
12-4 Thermal Comfort Considerations
12-5 Building Enclosure Considerations
12-6 Heating Degree Days and Seasonal Heat Requirements
12-6-1 Adjusting HDD Values to a Different Base Temperature
12-7 Types of Passive Solar Heating Systems
12-7-1 Direct Gain
12-7-2 Indirect Gain, Trombe Wall
12-7-3 Isolated Gain
12-8 Solar Transmission through Windows
12-9 Load:Collector Ratio Method for Analysis
12-10 Conservation Factor Addendum to the LCR Method
12-11 Load:Collector Ratio Method for Design
12-12 Passive Ventilation by Thermal Buoyancy
12-13 Designing Window Overhangs for Passive Solar Systems
12-14 Summary
References
Exercises
13 Wind Energy Systems
13-1 Overview
13-2 Introduction
13-2-1 Components of a Turbine
13-2-2 Comparison of Onshore and Offshore Wind
13-2-3 Alternative Turbine Designs: Horizontal versus Vertical Axis
13-3 Using Wind Data to Evaluate a Potential Location
13-3-1 Using Statistical Distributions to Approximate Available Energy
13-3-2 Effects of Height, Season, Time of Day, and Direction on Wind Speed
13-4 Estimating Output from a Specific Turbine for a Proposed Site
13-4-1 Rated Capacity and Capacity Factor
13-5 Turbine Design
13-5-1 Theoretical Limits on Turbine Performance
13-5-2 Tip Speed Ratio, Induced Radial Wind Speed, and Optimal Turbine Rotation Speed
13-5-3 Analysis of Turbine Blade Design
13-5-4 Steps in Turbine Design Process
13-6 Economic and Social Dimensions of Wind Energy Feasibility
13-6-1 Comparison of Large- and Small-Scale Wind
13-6-2 Integration of Wind with Other Intermittent and Dispatchable Resources
13-6-3 Public Perception of Wind Energy and Social Feasibility
13-7 Representative Levelized Cost Calculation for Electricity from Utility-Scale Wind
13-8 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
14 Bioenergy Resources and Systems
14-1 Overview
14-2 Introduction
14-2-1 Policies
14-2-2 Net Energy Balance Ratio and Life-Cycle Analysis
14-2-3 Productivity of Fuels per Unit of Cropland per Year
14-3 Biomass
14-3-1 Sources of Biomass
14-3-2 Pretreatment Technologies
14-4 Platforms
14-4-1 Sugar Platform
14-4-2 Syngas Platform
14-4-3 Bio-oil Platform
14-4-4 Carboxylate Platform
14-5 Alcohol
14-5-1 Sugarcane to Ethanol
14-5-2 Corn Grain to Ethanol
14-5-3 Cellulosic Ethanol
14-5-4 n-Butanol
14-6 Biodiesel
14-6-1 Production Processes
14-6-2 Life-Cycle Assessment
14-7 Methane and Hydrogen (Biogas)
14-7-1 Anaerobic Digestion
14-7-2 Anaerobic Hydrogen-Producing Systems
14-8 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
15 Transportation Energy Technologies
15-1 Overview
15-2 Introduction
15-2-1 Definition of Terms
15-2-2 Endpoint Technologies for a Petroleum- and Carbon-Free Transportation System
15-2-3 Competition between Emerging and Incumbent Technologies
15-3 Vehicle Design Considerations and Alternative Propulsion Designs
15-3-1 Criteria for Measuring Vehicle Performance
15-3-2 Options for Improving Conventional Vehicle Efficiency
15-3-3 Power Requirements for Nonhighway Modes
15-4 Alternatives to ICEVs: Alternative Fuels and Propulsion Platforms
15-4-1 Battery-Electric Vehicles
15-4-2 Hybrid Vehicles
15-4-3 Biofuels: Adapting Bio-energy for Transportation Applications
15-4-4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Systems and Vehicles
15-5 Well-to-Wheel Analysis as a Means of Comparing Alternatives
15-6 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
16 Systems Perspective on Transportation Energy
16-1 Overview
16-2 Introduction
16-2-1 Ways of Categorizing Transportation Systems
16-2-2 Influence of Transportation Type on Energy Requirements
16-2-3 Units for Measuring Transportation Energy Efficiency
16-3 Recent Trends and Current Assessment of Energy Use in Transportation Systems
16-3-1 Passenger Transportation Energy Trends and Current Status
16-3-2 Freight Transportation Energy Trends and Current Status
16-3-3 Estimated CO2 Emissions Factors by Mode
16-4 Applying a Systems Approach to Transportation Energy
16-4-1 Modal Shifting to More Efficient Modes
16-4-2 Rationalizing Transportation Systems to Improve Energy Efficiency
16-4-3 Integrating Light-Duty Vehicles and Electricity Supply to Optimize Vehicle Charging and Grid Performance
16-5 Understanding Transition Pathways for New Technology
16-6 Toward a Policy for Future Transportation Energy from a Systems Perspective
16-6-1 Metropolitan Region Energy Efficiency Plan
16-6-2 Allocating Emerging Energy Sources and Technologies to Transportation Sectors
16-7 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercises
17 Conclusion: Creating the Twenty-First-Century Energy System
17-1 Overview
17-2 Introduction: Energy in the Context of the Economic-Ecologic Conflict
17-2-1 Comparison of Three Energy System Endpoints: Toward a Portfolio Approach
17-2-2 Summary of End-of-Chapter Levelized Cost Values
17-2-3 Other Emerging Technologies Not Previously Considered
17-2-4 Comparison of Life Cycle CO2 Emissions per Unit of Energy
17-3 Sustainable Energy for Developing Countries
17-4 Pathways to a Sustainable Energy Future: A Case Study
17-4-1 Renewable Scenario Results
17-4-2 Comparison to Nuclear and CCS Pathways
17-4-3 Comparison of Industrialized versus Emerging Contribution
17-4-4 Discussion
17-5 The Role of the Energy Professional in Creating the Energy Systems of the Future
17-5-1 Roles for Energy Professionals Outside of Formal Work
17-6 Summary
References
Further Reading
Exercise
A Perpetual Julian Date Calendar
B LCR Table
C CF Table
D Numerical Answers to Select Problems
E Common Conversions
F Information about Thermodynamic Constants
Index